Which of the following is something advocate for arousal theory might observe?

Social cognitive theory

SCT addresses psychosocial factors and motivations influencing health behaviors and methods to promote sustained, translatable behavior change [3]. SCT is a commonly applied behavior change theory to diabetes technologies; a recent systematic review found the majority of mobile health interventions addressing diet, physical activity, or weight loss utilized SCT as the guiding framework [6]. SCT includes consideration of an individual’s prior behavior, cognitions, social environment, and physical environment when predicting future behavior. Behavior change is initiated and maintained when persons feel that they are capable of executing the desired behavior (i.e., self-efficacy) and have a reasonable expectation that the behavior will result in a desired outcome (i.e., outcome expectations). Additional SCT considerations relevant for diabetes technology include (1) an individual’s knowledge of health risks and benefits associated with target behavior, (2) identification of specific goals and strategies for tracking progress and realizing these goals, and (3) use of vicarious learning in which the observation of other people or models guides learning. Key pathways of influence include (1) tailoring content or behavioral targets to a participant’s knowledge and efficacy level, (2) monitoring progress they are making, and (3) utilizing social support to enhance learning and motivation [3].

Human Factors and Technical Considerations for Emerging Technologies

In anticipation of increased availability of OTC amplification and direct-to-consumer models of hearing health care, otolaryngologists must have an understanding of the factors, both from a design and technical perspective, that can influence an older adult's ability to use hearing technology, particularly new OTC devices currently on the market. Adequate amplification is only one aspect of addressing an older adult's hearing and communication needs. The field of human factors specializes in understanding and accounting for the unique human characteristics that influences an individual's ability to use and incorporate a piece of technology into his or her daily life.107 The primary focus is on enabling a user, an older adult, to interact with a piece of technology, an amplification device, comfortably, safely, and efficiently in an error-free manner in a dynamic environment.107 For older adults with hearing loss, the individual must learn a new technology and incorporate its use and maintenance into daily routine, while also augmenting what can be deeply entrenched communication behaviors.

Self-efficacy is an important aspect in managing any new technology, including hearing technology, and is defined as one'sperceived ability to execute a given behavior or task successfully.108 Approaches that enhance self-efficacy are associated with successful use of hearing aids among older adults.109 Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory delineates four strategies to enhance self-efficacy: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and emotional arousal.108 These strategies may take the form of mastery experiences during device fitting and orientation through teach-backs, modeling steps or behaviors using the device, provision of immediate, specific, and positive feedback, and creating a supportive environment during training.108,110

Human characteristics, such as sensation, perception, cognition, and movement control, must be considered when designing a technology and its associated instructional materials.107 Aging affects each of these characteristics, and designs must account for these age-related changes. For example, age-related vision changes are highly prevalent. and older adults with both visual and hearing loss report lower rates of self-efficacy related to hearing aid uptake and use.109 The small buttons and batteries used in hearing aids, combined with the small font of hearing aid manuals, are often not suitable to older adults.110,111 Hearing technology can be made more suitable for older adults through the inclusion of rechargeable batteries that connect magnetically, larger buttons for volume control, and access to DVDs or online videos to supplement manuals.110 Besides accounting for changes in perception, these accommodations make devices more accessible to older adults experiencing age-related or disease-related changes in manual dexterity.107,110 Instructional materials that feature video tutorials support older adults with modeling of behaviors and reinforcement opportunities that can aid older adults experiencing changes in cognition.107,110

Social learning theory (SLT).

Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.16 This theory supposes that most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

Derived from SLT, social cognitive theory (SCT) is relevant to health communication primarily because it deals with cognitive and emotional events, environmental factors, and aspects of behavior as shown in Figure 10-2. It is based on the learning principles and motivational ideas of Hull, who attempted to explain behavior relative to internal states known as “drives.”17 According to SCT, behavior is a function of what one would expect to happen as reinforcement for a particular behavior. The eleven main concepts shown in Box 10-2 provide the cognitive basis for SCT. Individuals who value the outcome of a situation will attempt to learn behaviors appropriate to the situation when they believe they are capable of acceptable performance, and the performance and outcome are connected. SCT is relevant to patient education for three reasons. First, this theoretical approach brings elements of knowing, feeling, and behaving into a synergistic complex. Second, it suggests that there are varying avenues for explaining behavior. Third, it provides an opportunity to bring the fields of psychology and health behavior together in a synergistic fashion. The concepts of goal setting, skill training, and other self-care skills that are important in patient education and in a patient's adherence to a new behavior are embedded in SCT.

The Agentic Worldview of Self-Efficacy Theory

Self-efficacy theory emphasizes the importance of the individual and the individual's perceptions of his/her personal capabilities as key determinants of successful outcomes. Self-efficacy theory, and the broader social cognitive theory in which self-efficacy is encompassed, therefore clearly endorses a democratic ideal that suggests that all individuals are competent and capable of being successful, provided they have the opportunities and self-efficacy necessary to pursue their goals. Self-efficacy theory explicitly focuses on how individuals and communities can be empowered with a sense of agency that will facilitate goal attainment. This is important as self-efficacy theory does not presume that individuals who are currently successful are inherently better than those who are not as successful. Rather, self-efficacy theory would suggest that individuals who are currently struggling may not have been provided with opportunities to obtain mastery experiences or modeling necessary to develop high levels of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy theory therefore suggests that it is the responsibility of the government and society to provide everyone with sufficient opportunities to engage in mastery experiences, receive positive social persuasion, and witness positively reinforcing models that will engender a strong sense of self-efficacy.

It is worth noting, however, that self-efficacy theory does not suggest that positive self-efficacy beliefs are the only causes of important outcomes. Rather, as previously discussed, self-efficacy theory is rooted in a theory of triadic reciprocal determinism in which there is a constant interplay between personal factors (i.e., self-efficacy beliefs), behavior, and environmental factors. Self-efficacy theory emphasizes the relative importance of personal factors, but acknowledges that behavioral and environmental factors have profound effects on outcomes. This theory of triadic reciprocal determinism therefore further reinforces the idea that if the effects of the environment are consistent (i.e., an even playing field for all), then self-efficacy beliefs will take on an even greater role in determining human behavior, and ultimately shaping outcomes.

It is also important to note that self-efficacy theory does not advocate a Pollyannaish world view in which positive expectancies for the future are the sole determinant of future outcomes. There has been a recent backlash against positive thinking among many members of the popular press. Books such as Barbara Ehrenreich's Bright-Sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive Thinking Has Undermined America have argued that an excessive emphasis on and belief in the benefits of positive thinking has had a detrimental effect on the lives of many individuals and the society as a whole. There is much to be said about identifying the potential pitfalls of naïvely optimistic worldviews or self-help programs that suggest that positive thinking provides almost magical benefits. However, it is important for researchers, clinicians, and the public to recognize the distinction between these less scientific theories of positive thinking and empirically based theories such as self-efficacy. Self-efficacy beliefs are in no way proposed to be a panacea for all of the ills of the world nor are self-efficacy beliefs proposed to be the only psychological factor that may determine important life outcomes. Rather, self-efficacy theory proposes a more measured worldview in which opportunities to experience or witness success may promote positive evaluations of one's capacities to succeed in the future which in turn increases the likelihood of subsequent positive outcomes.

A. Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory, the cognitive formulation of social learning theory that has been best articulated by Bandura [24, 25], explains human behavior in terms of a three-way, dynamic, reciprocal model in which personal factors, environmental influences, and behavior continually interact. Social cognitive theory synthesizes concepts and processes from cognitive, behavioristic, and emotional models of behavior change, so it can be readily applied to nutritional intervention for disease prevention and management. A basic premise is that people learn not only through their own experiences, but also by observing the actions of others and the results of those actions [14]. Key constructs of social cognitive theory that are relevant to nutritional intervention include observational learning, reinforcement, self-control, and self-efficacy [7].

Principles of behavior modification, which have often been used to promote dietary change, are derived from social cognitive theory. Some elements of behavioral dietary interventions based on social cognitive theory constructs of self-control, reinforcement, and self-efficacy include goalsetting, self-monitoring and behavioral contracting [7, 15].

Self-efficacy, or a person's confidence in his or her ability to take action and to persist in that action despite obstacles or challenges, seems to be especially important for influencing health behavior and dietary change efforts [25]. Health providers can make deliberate efforts to increase patients’ self-efficacy using three types of strategies: (1) setting small, incremental, and achievable goals; (2) using formalized behavioral contracting to establish goals and specify rewards; and (3) monitoring and reinforcement, including patient self-monitoring by keeping records [14]. In group nutrition programs, it is possible to easily incorporate activities such as cooking demonstrations, problem-solving discussions, and self-monitoring that are rooted in social cognitive theory.

The key social cognitive theory construct of reciprocal determinism means that a person can be both an agent for change and a responder to change. Thus, changes in the environment, the examples of role models, and reinforcements can be used to promote healthier behavior.

What is arousal quizlet?

What are the main principles of arousal approaches to motivation?

Which of the following theories suggests that performance on tasks is best when the arousal is appropriate to the difficulty of the task?

What is arousal theory quizlet?