Introduction[edit | edit source]Parkinson's is a progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder caused by a lack of dopamine production in the substantia nigra. The cardinal features of this disorder include bradykinesia, gait disturbance, rigidity, and tremor.
[1] Impairments of balance and postural stability likely contribute to the increased risk of falls and fractures found in this patient population [2]. In response to perturbations of balance with a
backward waist pull, individuals with Parkinson's demonstrate differences in weight shift, use a modified ankle joint motion before lift-off and land with weight shifted posteriorly compared with healthy age-matched controls [3]. Show
Typical Gait Pattern in Parkinson's[edit | edit source][4] People with Parkinson's often experience increased gait impairments as the disease progresses and symptoms become more severe. [5] Impairments include; [6][7][8]
Coupled with these gait impairments are increased risk and rate of falling. Increased probability of falls not only increases the risk of injury such as hip fracture but also affects an individual's independence and ability to interact within the community. Additionally, fear of falling has psychological consequences and can lead to self-isolation and depression.[9] Gait Kinematics[edit | edit source]The changes in gait kinematics include changes in the
excursion of the hip and ankle joint. Instead of a heel-toe progression, the patient may have a flat-footed or, with disease progression, a toe-heel sequence. The patient with Parkinson's appears to have lost the adult gait pattern and is using a more primitive pattern. The flat-footed gait decreases the ability to step over obstacles or walk on carpeted surfaces. The use of three-dimensional gait analysis has shown a decrease in plantar flexion at terminal stance. Changes are also seen in hip
flexion, which may alter ankle excursion. However, qualitative aspects of the timing of joint excursion appear intact. Pathophysiology[edit | edit source]One hypothesis is that festinating gait is caused by decreased equilibrium responses. If walking is a series of controlled falls and if normal responses to falling are delayed or not strong enough, then the individual will either completely fall or continue to take short,
running-like steps. The abnormal motor unit firing seen with bradykinesia may also be the cause of ever-shortening steps. If the motor unit cannot build up a high enough frequency or if it pauses in the middle of the movement, the full range of the movement would decrease. In walking this would lead to shorter steps. Festination may also be the result of other changes in the kinematics of gait. Horak et al. (1992) demonstrated coactivation (activation of muscles on both sides of the body)
resulting in stiffening of the body and is a very insufficient strategy for the recovery of balance. Physiotherapy Management[edit | edit source]Flexibility Exercises[edit | edit source]A study by Reuter et al. (2011) [10] demonstrated improvement in 12 m and 24 m Webster Walking tests following
flexibility exercises and relaxation training. The training focused on stretching, improving balance and range of movements, thrice a week for six months. However, there was a more significant improvement in the walking group (warming up, technique training, endurance training and cooling down) and even more significant improvement in the nordic walking group. This indicates task-specific approach for better results. Strength Training[edit | edit source][11]The systematic review by Lima et al. (2013) [12] suggested
that progressive resistance exercise can be effective and worthwhile in people with mild-to-moderate Parkinson's but carryover of benefit does not occur for all measures of physical performance. The current evidence suggests that progressive resistance training should be implemented in rehabilitation for Parkinson's, particularly when the aim is to improve walking capacity. Another review by Tambosco et al. (2014) [13] access the efficacy and the limits of aerobic training and strength training included in physical rehabilitation programs and to define practical modalities in the management of Parkinson's. In this review, five literature reviews and 31 randomised trials were selected. The authors concluded that there is evidence that aerobic and strength
training improveS physical abilities of people with Parkinson's. It is emphasized that exercise training improves aerobic capacities, muscle strength, walking, posture and balance parameters. Rehabilitation programs should begin as soon as possible, last several weeks and be repeated. They should include aerobic training on a bicycle or treadmill and a muscle strengthening program. Balance Training[edit | edit source][14]A prospective interventional cohort study by Mhatre et al. (2013) [15] assessed the effect of exercise training by using the Nintendo Wii Fit video game and balance board system on balance and gait in
adults with Parkinson's. The authors conclude that an 8-week exercise training class by using the Wii Fit balance board improved selective measures of balance and gait in adults with Parkinson's. However, no significant changes were seen in mood or confidence regarding balance. A single-blind, randomized controlled clinical trial [16] was conducted in
China in 2013 by Gu et al to determine the effect of Parkinson's-weight bearing exercise for better balance (PD-WEBB) exercise on balance impairment and falls in people. Cueing Strategies[edit | edit source][17]External cues can be auditory or visual. Attentional strategies are consciously concentrating on a specific aspect of gait. By using cueing and attentional strategies the defective basal ganglia are bypassed. They no longer automatically have to control the movement as it has now become a cognitive task. A systematic review evaluating the evidence for the physical interventions for Freezing of gait (FOG) and gait impairments recommends Visual Cueing and Auditory Cueing and the treadmill training as effective interventions for FOG and gait impairments in PD patients[18]. Evidence: A systematic review of 24 studies showed that there is strong evidence that auditory cueing increased speed but there was insufficient evidence for visual and somatosensory
cueing[19]. Aquatic Therapy[edit | edit source]A pilot study by Rodriguez et al (2013) [20] determine the effects of an aquatic-based physical exercise program on gait parameters of patients with Parkinson's. A total of nine patients diagnosed with idiopathic Parkinson's (stages IIII according to the Hoehn and Yahr scale) carried out an aquatic physical exercise program which lasted for five months with one session per week. At the end of the program,
significant improvement in walking speed, stride length and on the relationship between single and double support time (p < 0,05). Although improvements in all tested ranges of motion were obtained, these did not reach statistical significance. Treadmill Training[edit | edit source][21]Literature review by Earhart and Williams (2012) [22] focused on the research question 'Can treadmill training improve the gait of individuals with Parkinson's?'. The authors reviewed 8 randomised control trials and randomised contolled crossover trials. Based on the results of this systematic review, they concluded that treadmill training is safe and appropriate for some individuals with mild to moderate Parkinson's. These individuals must have the cognitive and physical ability to utilize the treadmill, must understand and use the necessary safety precautions, and have adequate supervision as needed. Treadmill training can be expected to result in improvements in gait speed, stride length, and walking distance. Treadmill training does not appear to influence cadence, but this finding should not be viewed negatively. The maintenance of cadence following treadmill training, in conjunction with increased stride length, results in faster gait speed which is a positive outcome. The review does not include information to support or
refute the effects of treadmill training on other aspects of gait, such as dual-task walking and decreased coordination. In addition, treadmill training may not address reduced arm swing, which is commonly seen in people with Parkinson's, as arm swing is limited during treadmill training through use of handrails. Furthermore, generalizability of treadmill training may be limited, as the studies that were reviewed excluded individuals with a history of cognitive, depressive, cardiovascular or
orthopedic conditions. Dual-Task Gait Training[edit | edit source]Difficulty performing more than one task at a time (dual tasking) is a common and disabling problem experienced by people with Parkinson's. If asked to perform another task when walking, people with Parkinson's often take shorter steps or walk more slowly. A study by D'Souza et al. (2014) [23] investigated whether
treadmill training can improve the performance of gait on dual-tasking in people with Parkinson's. Three individuals were evaluated in the on-phase of the antiparkinsonian medication regarding the kinematics (Qualisys Motion Capture System) while in gait, simultaneously performing cognitive activities. Subsequently, the subjects performed a 20-minute workout on the treadmill and were reassessed during gait in cognitive activities. There were increases in the length of the cycle (p=0.01), the
length of the step (p=0.01) and in total swing time (p=0.03), and a decrease in the total length of support (p=0.03). These results indicate that treadmill training can promote improvement in the performance of dual-tasking on gait in individuals with Parkinson's. Robotics[edit | edit source]A pilot study by Lo et al (2010) [24] examined the potential effect of continuous physical cueing using robot-assisted sensorimotor gait training on reducing freezing of gait (FOG) episodes and improving gait. Four individuals with Parkinson's and FOG symptoms received ten 30-minute sessions of robot-assisted gait training (Lokomat) to facilitate repetitive, rhythmic and alternating bilateral lower extremity movements. All participants showed a reduction in freezing both by self-report and clinician-rated scoring upon completion of training. Improvements were also observed in gait velocity, stride length, rhythmicity, and coordination. The literature review[25] suggests that robot-assisted gait technology has better results in addressing the freezing of gait for Parkinson's patients. However, more research is needed in this field. References[edit | edit source]
Which clinical finding would the nurse expect to identify for a client with a new diagnosis of myasthenia gravis?Single fiber electromyography (EMG), considered the most sensitive test for myasthenia gravis, detects impaired nerve-to-muscle transmission.
Which muscle strength rating would the nurse record for a client who can complete range of motion?0 No muscle activation. 1 Trace muscle activation, such as a twitch, without achieving full range of motion. 2 Muscle activation with gravity eliminated, achieving full range of motion.
Which procedure would the nurse expect as a treatment option for a client newly diagnosed with Guillain Barré syndrome?"Plasmapheresis or immunoglobin therapies are treatment options available for this syndrome but are most effective when given within 4 weeks of the onset of symptoms."
Which muscle strength rating with the nurse record for a client who can complete range of motion with some resistance quizlet?Complete range of motion against gravity is normal muscle strength and is recorded as Grade 5 muscle strength. You just studied 5 terms!
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